CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
In
this chapter, the researcher discusses the result of reviewing the experts opinion on reading. The
discussion includes definition of reading, concept of reading comprehension,
reading strategies, process of reading, the nature of text, the concept of
announcement text, previous research and theoritical framework.
2.1 Nature of Reading
Based
on Wikipedia (2012), reading is a complex cognitive process of decoding symbols
for the intention of consctracting or deriving meaning (reading cmprehension).
It is the mastery of basic cognitive process to the point where they are
automatic so that attention is freed for the analysis of meaning.
According
to Seyler (2004:4), reading involves getting meaning from the words. It does
not mean being able to know their definitions, but understanding the ideas,
information, or feelings the the words convey when they are put together in
particular pattern. If we are not getting a message, we are not reading. Think
about it this way: you read with your brain.
Furthermore,
Eskey (2002) states that reading is the process of acquiring information from a
written or printed text. Reading is not converting written language of spoken
language. For example, reading aloud only concerned with pronounciation of word
correctly or reading with expression without any attention to the meaning of
the text. It means that even we can read many pages in a short time with
correct pronounciation and appropriate expression without knowing the meaning
means useless.
Furthermore,
reading is a meaning interpretation of written verbal symbols. It is the result
of the interaction between the perception of graphic symbols that respresent
language and the reader’s skills and knowledge of the word. Hance, reading may
be defined as the act of responding with appropriate meaning to print or
written verbal symbol. (Harris and Syahfitri, 2009: 7).
In
addition reading is a receptive language process in that is starts with a
linguistic surface representation encoded by researcher and end with meaning
which the reader constructs. Such definition suggests an important and active
role that readers play during the interaction with the text. (Carrel and Esday
in mey 2007:27).
Based
on definition above we can cnclude that reading activities is a process of
gettering information from written or printed text which needs strategies. In
reading process the reader tries to find out what the researcher’s intention
is.
2.2 The concept of Reading
Comprehension
Reading
comprehension is the process of “constructing meaning” from a text.
Comprehension is a “constucting process” because it invloves all of the
elements in the reading process, working together as a text to create
representation of the text in the readers’ mind.
According
to Leu and Kinze (2002), reading comprehension means the ability to understand
or get menaing from the text, and interaction between the text being read and
the reaer’s existing prior knowledge and expectations will generate menaing and
comprehension.
Futhermore,
White in Muleta (2009:11) states that comprehension is negotiating between the
reader and researcher. It menas that comprehension is an interpretation or what
the reader think when they are reading. By having reading comprehension of the
text, the readers can get information from the text.
In
addition, reading comprehension is a complex cognitive process that depends
upon a number of ingredients all of which working together in a syncromnous,
even automatic way. Vocabulary clearly plays a critical role in understanding
what has been read. The reader mus also be intentional and thoghtful while
reading, monitoring the words and their meaning as reading progresses. And the
reader must apply reading comprehension strategies as ways to be sure that what
is being read matches their expectations and builds aon their growing body of
knowledge that is being stored for immidiate or future reference.
In
short, from some definitions above we can say that reading comprehension is the
interaction between the reader ad the researcher though reading text.
2.3 Reading Strategies
there
are several strategies that can be used in reading to make the reader more
comprehensible in reading text. Each of them is discussed mre details in the
folllowing paragraphs.
2.3.1 Skimming
Mukulecky
and jefries (2004: 38) state that skimming is high-speed that can save you time
and help you get through lots of material quickly. It is different from other
kinds of high-speed reading, such as previewing and scanning. You skim to get
the general scane of a passage or book, not specific details. When you skim,
you have general question about the whole text. Such as “ will this passage be
useful to me?” or “what is this researcher’s opinion?” or “what is the
researcher’s opinion?” or “what is the researcher’s opinion?” or what is the
researcher’s purpose the general idea.
Furthermore,
Lamb and johnson (2001) states that skimming is used to quickly identity the
main ideas of a text. When you read the newspaper, you are probably not reading
word by word, instead you are scanning the text. Skimming is done at a speed
three to four time faster than normal reading. People often skim when you want
to see if an article may be of interest in your research.
In
short, the researcher concludes that skimming is the strategies that can be
used by the reader to get the information quickly from the text without reading
the text word by word.
2.3.2 Scanning
According
to Lamb and Johnson (2001), scanning is a technique you often use when looking
up a word in the telephone book or dictionary. You search for key worlds or
ideas. In the most cases, you know what you are looking for, so you are
concentraticng on finding a particular answer. Scanning involves moving your
eyes quckly down the page seeking specific words and pharase. Scanning is also
used when you first find a reseorce to determine whether it will answer your
questions. Once you are scanned the document, you might to back and skim it.
When
the scanning look for the author’s use of organizers such as numbers, letters,
steps, or the words, first, second, or next. Look for words that are bold
faced, italics, or in a different font size, style, or color. Sometimes the
author will put key ideas in the margin.Mc Whorter in Mulcta (2009:8) states
some strategies to scan are; scanning will be used when someone has a purpose,
so try to keep in mind what you are looking by forming questions about the
topic and the second anticipate clues to locate the answer more rapidy.
From
the explanation above, we can conclude that scanning is the reading, strategy
which is used by the readers when they are looking for a specific piece of
information.
2.3.3 Extensive Reading
According
to Richards and Renandya (2002: 295-298), extensive reading generally involves
rapid reading of large quantities of material or longer readings (e.g., whole
books) for general understanding, with the focus generally on the meaning of
what is being read than on the language.
Extensive
reading is seen as offering many advantages, some of which are as follows:
1. Enhanced
language learning is suchareas as spelling, vocabulary, grammar, and text
structure.
2. Increased
knowledge of the world.
3. Improved
reading and writing skills.
4. Greater
enjoyment of reading.
5. More
positive attitude toward reading.
6. Higher
possibility of develophing a reading habit.
From
the definition above, we can make a conclution that extensive reading is the
reading strategy which is used to read the longer reading text quickly in order
to get the general understanding of the text.
2.3.4 Intensive Reading
Nation
(2009:25-27) states that intensive reading can be means of increasing learner’s
knowledge of language features and their control of reading strategies. It can
also improve their comprehension skill. The classic procedure for intensive
reading is the grammar-translation approach where the teacher works with the
learners, using the first language to explain the meaning of a text, sentence
by sentence.
Intensive
work in reading text can focus on the following aspects:
1. Comprehension. Intensive
reading can aim at understanding a particular text.
2. Regular and irregular sound-spelling
relations. This can be done trough the teaching of phonics,
through teaching spelling rules, and through reading alound.
3. Vocabulary.
Learners attention can be drawn to useful words, and the underlying meaning and
use of these words can be explained. Words from the text could be assigned for
later study.
4. Grammar.
Difficult grammatical features can be explained and analyzed.
5. Cohesion.
Learners can practice interpreting what pronouns refer to in the text. What the
conjungtion relationship between sentences are and how different words are used
to refer to the same idea.
6. Information structure.
Certain text contains certain kinds of information. News paper reports, for
example, can describe what happend, what led to the happening, what the likely
effects will be, who was involved and when and when it happened. Learners can
be help to identify these different kinds of information.
7. Genre features.
The vocabulary, grammatical features, cohesive features and information all
contribute to the communicative of effect of a text. Intensive reading can
focus on how the text achieves its communicative purpose though these features
and what this communicative purpose it.
8. Strategies.
Intensive reading can be used to help learners develop useful reading strategies.
By working intensivelyon a text, learners can practice the steps in guessing
from context. Using a dictionary, simplifying difficult sentences and taking
notes. They can also recieve training in integrated packages of strategies.
In
other word, intensive reading is the reading strategy which is used to increase
the students’ knowledge of the laguage features. Extensive reading focuses on
several aspects they are; Comprehension, Regular and irregular sound-spelling
relations, grammar, cohesion, information structure, genre features, and
strategies.
From
the explanation above, we can conclude that there are several strategies that
can be used in reading a process in order to help the readers be easy in
comprehending the reading text, some of them are skimming, scanning, intensive
reading, and extensive reading.
2.4 Process of Reading
According
to Templeton (in Muleta: 2009:9-10), there are three types of common process of
reading, they are top down, bottom up, and interactive model.
2.4.1 Bottom-up Model
The
bottom up is imprecise processing invloving exact, detail sequental perception
of letter, word spelling pattern and large language unit. This model assumes
that reader is proceeding by the eyes from left to right across page. The
readers try to understand word, clause, sentence, and the respective.
Information is proceded linearly in sequence of stages. The process is
initiated when the readers take up visual information from the page, this
information with little or no influence from readers’ knowledge of the world.
In
short, bottom up model is the process of reading when the readers try to
understand word, clause, sentences, the text resprective and large unit of the
language.
2.4.2 Top-down Model
Top
down is assumed that reader is primarily controlling all levels of processing
and that the process begins with the readers’ knowledge of the world and the
knowledge. This knowledge is used to guess, predict or make assumption about
the possibility of what will be coming in the text. This model involves an
interaction between readrs and the text. In this model then, the process of
comprehension deals with the use of background knowledge to predict.
2.4.3 Interactive Model
Interactive
model deals with a particular type of cognitive behavior based on certain kind
of knowledge and parts of readers’ cognitive structures. This model is
combination of bottom up and top down model. It stressis the interplay of all
mean gathering activities that take during reading. Interactive model helps
teachers to understand how process of reading result in new menaing based on
contribution of the readers and the meaning he/she brings to the text from
background knowledge.
From
the explanation above, it can be concluded that interactive model is a
combination of bottom up and top down model which stressis the interplay of all
mean gathering activities that take during reading.
2.5 The Nature of Text
According
to Hyland in Pratama (2010), text are autonomous objects which can be analyzed
and described independently of particular context, researchers or readers.
Texts have their structures. They are orderly arrangement of words, clauses and
sentence by following the principles which guide the correct arragument of
elements. Researchers can encode full semantic representation of their intended
meaning.
Andreson
and Kanthy (2000) state that a text consists of spoken or written words that
have the purpose of conveying message. When the words are put together to
communicate a meaning, piece of text is created.
One
factor that accounts for differences in text is the purpose for which the text
is being used. When constructing a piece of text, the speaker or the researcher
make choices of words will depend on the purpose and context of the text.
Texts
are structured in diffrent ways to achieve their purpose. For example, the
purpose announcement text is to tell about information to public. From the
definition above, a simple conclusion can be drawn that texts are group of
words or organize patterns of spoken or written language that has purpose and
menaing.
2.6 Concept of Announcement Text
English
teachers assosiation of junior high school padang (2012) state that
announcement is something that someone says or writes formaly or informaly to
give information or statment for public.
Announcement
divided into two, that are spoken announcement and written announcement. Spoken
announcement use spoken language, such as “good morning class or friends,
attention please!”, listen students. In written announcement states title,
even, time, place, and contact person/ people who writes the announcement.
From
the explanation above we can draw small conclusion that announcement text is a
text someone writes formaly or informaly to give information or statment for
public.
2.6.1 Generic Structure of
Announcement Text
According
English teachers assosiation of junior high school padang (2012) announcement
text has three generic structures. The each of them is details as follows:
1. Title
2. Even
3. Time
4. Place
5. Contac
person or people who writes the announcement.
Dodi
Adi Nugroho (2012: 11) states that generic strusture of announcement text as
follow:
1. Title
or type of event.
2. Date,
time and place.
3. Contac
person
2.6.2 Language Features of
Announcement Text
Based
on English teachers assosiation of junior high school padang (2012)
announcement text has some language features. All of them will be explained as
follows:
1. Short
sentences
2. Factual
straightforward language
3. Little
elaboration
From
the explanation above, the researcher makes a simple conclusion that
announcement text is a text that write formaly or informaly to give information
or statment for public. Announcement text has text organitations, and language
features they are; short sentence, factual and little elaboration.
2.6.3 Example of Announcement Text
Announcement
To:
All students of junior high school 12 padang in conjuction with the
celebration of the national education day, the students board organization
will hold some interesting programs. They are speech contest, english story
telling and wall magazine competition. The programs will be held on March,
24th 2011, 8am-1pm.
All
classes must take part and should report their participation to their own
teacher.
2.7 Previous Research
So
far, there is a research about announcement text which one of Competencty-Based on the Curriculum in junior
high school, the students in first year are study about announcement. The goal
of the study announcement are student able to respond the menaing of the
announcement, students able to announce something, students able to comprehend
an announcement and the last is the student able to write an announcement.
Based
on the researcher experience when taking teaching training in SMP N 12 Padang,
there are many difficulties that student found when study in announcement text.
It is appear when the students having mid semester after study announcement.
Based
on the explanation above, the researcher is interested in concuding the
research which estitles “ An Analysis of first year students of SMP N 12 Padang
in Understanding Announcement text”.
2.8 Theoritical Framework
Reading
is one of the English Language Skill. In reading process we have to know the
strategies of reading (skimming, scanning, extensive reading, and intensive
reading model), reading text type: one of them is announcement text. The
researcher only focuses the students’ ability to understanding announcement
text especially in the title or type of event, date or time, place and contac
person or announcer.
Diagram
